DOMESTIC VIOLENCE A BRIEF CRITICAL ANALYSIS OF IMPACT AND INTERVENTIONS Essay Example

DOMESTIC VIOLENCE: A BRIEF CRITICAL ANALYSIS OF IMPACT AND INTERVENTIONS Essay Domestic Violence: A BRIEF CRITICAL ANALYSIS OF IMPACT AND INTERVENTIONS BUILT ON A DEFINITIONAL, HISTORICAL, AND THEORETICAL FOUNDATION We will write a custom essay sample on DOMESTIC VIOLENCE: A BRIEF CRITICAL ANALYSIS OF IMPACT AND INTERVENTIONS specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on DOMESTIC VIOLENCE: A BRIEF CRITICAL ANALYSIS OF IMPACT AND INTERVENTIONS specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on DOMESTIC VIOLENCE: A BRIEF CRITICAL ANALYSIS OF IMPACT AND INTERVENTIONS specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer â€Å"And yet I fear you, for you re fatal so When your eyes roll so. Why I should fear I know non, Since guiltiness I know non, but yet I feel I fear.† Introduction The introductory citation by Desdemona expresses her fright of Othello’s fury ( Shakespeare, 1604, cited in Meyersfeld, 2003 ) at the same clip articulately conveying the panic implicit in domestic force and showing that domestic force is non a new phenomenon. Neither is domestic force a rare happening. Harmonizing to the British authorities, domestic force affects 1000000s of lives. The undermentioned statistics are quoted from the official authorities web site ( CrimeReduction.gov.uk,Domestic force mini-site, 2005 ) : one in four adult females and one in six work forces will be victims of domestic force in their life-time with adult females at greater hazard of repetition exploitation and serious hurt ; 89 per centum of those enduring four or more incidents are adult females ; one incident of domestic force is reported to the constabulary every minute ; on mean, two adult females a hebdomad are killed by a current or former male spouse ; and domestic force histories for 16 per centum of all violent offense. This essay will show that the issue of domestic force is a complex one, much more complex than the term itself might convey. Indeed, domestic force is complex in footings of its very definition, complex in footings of its theoretical accounts, complex in footings of gender relevancy, complex in footings of its effects, and complex in footings of intercessions to forestall and cover with its happening. The essay begins with a presentation and review of assorted definitions for domestic force, an geographic expedition of the historical development of domestic force as a social concern, and a treatment and review of theoretical accounts for domestic force including consideration of the relevancy of gender. This foundation will be used as a footing for researching the impact of domestic force upon its direct and indirect victims and the value and efficaciousness of the current resources, enterprises, and support webs used in battling domestic force and helping its victims. Finally, reaso ning comments will be presented. A Critique on Definitions of Domestic Violence Finding a generally-accepted definition fordomestic forceproved to be an elusive enterprise. This may be because there is no consensus definition of the term ( Laurence and Spalter-Roth, 1996 ;Contemporary Women s Issues Database, May 1996 ;Contemporary Women s Issues Database, July 1996 ) . Each author seems to specify the term to suit his or her subject or docket. For case, Chez ( 1994, cited in Gibson-Howell, 1996 ) , in concentrating on female victims of domestic force, defines the term as â€Å"the repeated subjugation of a adult female to forceful physical, societal, and psychological behaviour to hale her without respect to her rights.† Some definitions are basic and general: â€Å"a form of regularly happening maltreatment and force, or the menace of force, in an confidant ( though non needfully cohabitating ) relationship† ( Gibson-Howell, 1996, mentioning Loring and Smith, 1994 ) . Other definitions are comprehensive and specific ( Manor, 1996 ; Neufield, 1996 ;Asiatic Pages, 1998 ; Josiah, 1998 ;Seattle Post-Intelligencer, 1999 ; Danis, 2003;Verkaik, 2003 ) . The more comprehensive definitions, although phrased otherwise, typically possess the undermentioned common elements: a form of opprobrious behaviour ( as contrasted to a individual event ) ; the opprobrious behaviour involves control, coercion, and/or power ; the opprobrious behaviour may be physical, sexual, emotional, psychological, and/or fiscal ; and the victim of the opprobrious behaviour is a cohabitating or non-cohabitating intimate spouse or partner. The British authorities has adopted one of the more expansive descriptions of domestic force, one that includes all of the foregoing elements: â€Å"Any incident of endangering behavior, force or maltreatment ( psychological, physical, sexual, fiscal or emotional ) between grownups who are or have been intimate spouses or household members, irrespective of gender or gender. Beyond the basic definition, the authorities furnishes farther description of domestic force as â€Å"a form of opprobrious and commanding behaviour† by which the maltreater efforts to derive power over the victim. The authorities contends that domestic force crosses age, gender, racial, gender, wealth, and geographical lines. ( CrimeReduction.gov.uk,Domestic force mini-site, 2005 ) Interestingly, the definition offered by the authorities expands the description to include other â€Å"family members† in add-on to â€Å"intimate partners.† Historical Development of the Recognition of Domestic Violence as a Social Concern The issue of domestic force, peculiarly force against female partners, was a subject of social concern dating from the first matrimony jurisprudence instituted by Romulus in 75 B.C. But the concern was non inforestallingdomestic force ; to the reverse ; the concern was in support of â€Å"wife beating†Ã¢â‚¬â€legally and institutionally—a status that existed through the early 20th century. ( Danis, 2003, mentioning Dobash and Dobash, 1979 ) . English common jurisprudence, until the late 19th century, â€Å"structured matrimony to give a hubby high quality over his married woman in most facets of the relationship.† This â€Å"sanctioned superiority† gave the hubby the right to â€Å"command his wife’s obeisance, and capable her to bodily penalty or ‘chastisement’ if she defied his authority.† ( Tuerkheimer, 2004, mentioning Siegel, 1996 ) The beginning of the 20th century witnessed the dismantlement of Torahs specifically excusing control and force ; nevertheless, the Torahs were non replaced by codifications that protected victims from maltreatment. Alternatively, â€Å"marital privacy† became the criterion. Basically, maltreatment was considered to be a household job, non one in which society had an involvement. ( Turekheimer, 2004 ) Not until the feminist motion of the late sixtiess and 1970s was public involvement in domestic force piqued ( Danis, 2003, mentioning Schechter, 1982 ) . With small public or private support, feminist militants set up shelters for female victims of domestic force. They besides pressed for Torahs to penalize wrongdoers and promoted preparation of societal workers and other professions to acknowledge domestic force and handle its victims. (Contemporary Women’s Issues Database, May 1996 ) . From these low beginnings, over the last thirty-plus old ages, public consciousness has been enhanced dramatically, increasing sums of public and private support have been allocated for shelters, domestic force Torahs have been strengthened, and societal workers and other professionals ( e.g. school forces, health care professionals, constabulary officers ) have been trained to acknowledge marks of, and supply intervention to those affected by, domestic force. Today, in the early old ages of the new millenary, the manner in which society positions domestic force is go oning to germinate. Physical maltreatment of married womans was the initial focal point of intercession enterprises. Pulling on research presented earlier, sexual, emotional, psychological, and fiscal maltreatment have been added to physical maltreatment as types of domestic force. And, many definitions of victims of domestic force now include, in add-on to married womans, hubbies and domestic spouses of the same or different sex. Increasingly, excessively, kids in the domestic agreement are being included as victims of domestic force. Theoretical Explanations for Domestic Violence and the Relevance of Gender Merely as there is a deficiency of consensus on a individual definition for domestic force, â€Å"there is no individual recognized causal theory for domestic violence.† In the absence of a individual theory, at least four theories are used to explicate why domestic force occurs: societal exchange/deterrence, societal acquisition, womens rightist, and the ecological model. ( Danis, 2003 ) These theories, with their relevancy to domestic force, will be presented and critiqued in this subdivision. A treatment of the relevancy of gender in domestic force will shut out the subdivision. Under thesocietal exchange theory, human interaction is driven by prosecuting wagess and avoiding penalties and costs. ( Danis, 2003, mentioning Blau, 1964 ) . Gelles and Cornell ( 1985, 1990, cited in Danis, 2003 ) contend that domestic force occurs when costs do non outweigh wagess. Costss in this context include the possible for defensive physical action by the victim, potency of being arrested and imprisoned, loss of personal position, and disintegration of the domestic agreement. Thesocietal acquisition theorysuggests that people learn to be violent by being instantly rewarded or punished after they commit violent behaviour, through what is calledsupport, and by watching the experiences of others, calledpatterning( Danis, 2003, mentioning Bandura, 1973 ) . Harmonizing to some experts, there is a correlativity between people who witness opprobrious behaviour in their earlier lives and those who commit domestic force subsequently. ( Danis, 2003, mentioning O’Leary, 1987 ) . Harmonizing towomens rightist theory, domestic force emanates from a â€Å"patriarchal† school system which assigns work forces the duty for commanding and pull offing female spouses ( Danis, 2003, mentioning Dobash and Dobash, 1979 ; Yllo, 1993 ) . Under this theory, domestic force is attributed to a defect in social construction instead than to any specific single male pathology. Finally, theecological model theory, in postulating that no individual theory can be used in explicating or foretelling domestic force, proposes hazard factors for domestic force and intercessions to turn to it at three levels—the micro degree ( e.g. batterer plans ) , the meso degree ( e.g. constabulary and the tribunals ) , and the macro degree ( e.g. a co-ordinated community attack ) . ( Danis, 2003, mentioning Crowell and Burgess, 1996 ; Chalk and King, 1998 ) . Each of these four theories offers valuable penetration into domestic force. For case, the societal exchange theory offers a footing for jurisprudence enforcement and prosecution of wrongdoers ; the societal acquisition theory helps to explicate why kids who witness abuse sometimes turn up to be maltreaters themselves thereby supplying principle for disciplinary intercessions to â€Å"unlearn† opprobrious behaviour ; and the womens rightist theory supports intercessions targeted at assisting batterers to reform and assisting to authorise victims. But none of these theories seems to supply a comprehensive foundation on which a comprehensive attack for covering with the many causal and outcome dimensions of domestic force can be built. The more incorporate ecological model theory, nevertheless, seems to supply the needful footing for such a comprehensive attack. Now attending will turn to the subject of the relevancy of gender in domestic force. Historically, as mentioned earlier, married womans were considered to be the lone victims of domestic force. Today, husbands every bit good as same- or different-sex non-married spouses are considered to be victims as good ( Cruz, 2003 ) . Although the statistics vary significantly ( Leo, 1994 ) , some indicating that the same figure of work forces as adult females are victims of domestic force ( Leo, 1994 ; Simerman, 2002 ) , most experts agree than adult females are most frequently the victims and, when they are victimized, the harm is normally more serious. The indicant that adult females are most frequently victims has now gained official acknowledgment. The British authorities contends that, although domestic force is non restricted to a specific gender, â€Å"it consists chiefly of force by work forces against women.† ( CrimeReduction.gov.uk,Domestic force mini-site, 2005 ) The Potential Impact of Domestic Violence on Females, Mothers, and Children Harmonizing to theContemporary Women’s Issues Database( January 1996 ) , â€Å"the most common victims ( of domestic force ) are adult females and children.† With the recognition that domestic force affects work forces every bit good as adult females, the focal point of the treatment in this subdivision will be on the possible impact of domestic force on females, by and large, and on females in their function as female parents every bit good as on their kids. Domestic force against adult females can ensue in serious physical hurts, psychological injury, and mental strain ( Wha-soon, 1994 ) . Harmonizing to Wha-soon, physical hurts include â€Å"severe concerns, contusions, bone breaks, loss of eyesight, nervous palsy, insomnia and dyspepsia, † and psychological injury can include â€Å"anxiety, a sense of impotence, and a loss of self-respect and self-confidence.† Psychological effects can take to suicide in some instances. Winkvist ( 2001 ) echoes these psychological effects and adds that battered adult females are besides more likely to see sexual and generative wellness upsets. Effectss are non restricted to those that are physical and psychological in nature, nevertheless. Womans can be financially impacted every bit good. Brown and Kenneym ( 1996 ) contend that adult females, in an attempt to fly their aggressors, may â€Å"give up fiscal security and their homes† in favour of safety. Mothers may see extra negative effects from domestic force. Starr ( 2001 ) contends that domestic force against female parents â€Å"is associated with harmful deductions for mental wellness and parenting, every bit good as for the offspring.† Harmonizing to Starr, female parents who are in an environment of domestic force suffer worse results for themselves and for their kids. Isaac ( 1997 ) suggests that maltreatment of female parents and kids are linked, saying that from 30 to about sixty per centum of female parents reported for kid maltreatment were themselves abused. Hewitt ( 2002 ) claims that 90 per centum of happenings of domestic force are witnessed either straight or indirectly by kids. Children can be affected in at least two ways by domestic force. Harmonizing to the British authorities, they can be traumatized by force they witness against others in the relationship even when they are non the specific marks of the force ( CrimeReduction.gov.uk,Domestic force mini-site, 2005 ) . Harmonizing to Hewitt ( 2002 ) , kids suffer low self-pride, isolation, injury, and homelessness that they may non attest until subsequently in life. They may besides endure from maladies such as concern, unhappiness, focal point and concentration troubles, forgetfulness, concerns and stomach aches, lying, and â€Å"poor impulse control, † harmonizing to Salisbury and Wichmann ( 2004 ) . Importantly, there is besides a strong correlativity between domestic force and kid maltreatment, a point which reinforces Isaac’s place mentioned earlier ( CrimeReduction.gov.uk,Domestic force mini-site, 2005 ) . Edleson ( 1999, cited in Spath, 2003 ) takes the same place in saying that â€Å"numerous research surveies over the last several decennaries have reported a connexion between domestic force and kid ill-treatment within families.† And, eventually, as mentioned earlier, the societal acquisition theory would propose that kids who witness force learn that force is an acceptable manner to settle differences. Supporting this, Wha-soon ( 1994 ) writes that the â€Å"learning of force causes a rhythm of violence.† An Appraisal of the Value and Efficacy of Domestic Violence Interventions Methods for covering with domestic force by and large fall into three classs: bar, protection, and justness (M2 Presswire, 1998 ) . As the footings imply,barefforts to debar incidences of domestic force through methods such as instruction and guidance ;protectioninvolves efforts to forestall farther hurt through methods such as taking victims from the state of affairs and telling wrongdoers to remain off from their victims ; andjustnessinvolves requital against domestic force wrongdoers. The value and efficaciousness of bar, protection, and justness methods used in covering with domestic force are hard to mensurate. A ground for this was mentioned earlier: the deficiency of a consensus definition for domestic force itself. (Contemporary Women’s Issues Database,May 1996 ) . However, there has been some effort at mensurating public presentation anecdotally. Harmonizing to the Contemporary Women’s Issues Database ( April 1993 ) : â€Å"Currently, the two most common signifiers of societal intercession are mechanisms that help her to go forth ( such as exigency shelters ) and holding him arrested†¦ ( but ) neither of these intercessions is ideal.† And, constabularies and judicial intercessions do non look to fair much better as illustrated by the instance of Samuel Gutierrez who killed his domestic spouse, Kelly Gonzalez, in Chicago, Illinois in the United States after multiple whippings, apprehensions, and assorted tribunal intercessions ( Hann a, 1998 ) . That domestic force still exists as such a serious societal job is likely the best grounds that current methods for forestalling it, protecting its victims, and demanding justness on wrongdoers are non working particularly good. Possibly the hereafter will be brighter. Newer positions, such as that offered by the ecological model theory, offer some hope. It seems that taking a comprehensive, incorporate attack could potentially be well more effectual as the assorted public and private constituents work together in a co-op, interactive agreement with one goal—the public assistance of the possible or existent victim. One expert even suggests that this combined public-private attack could be enhanced farther by adding a 3rd component—the household ( atomic household, extended household, intimate household, near relationships ) —to the formal, incorporate support agreement ( Kelly, 2004 ) . Decision Public and private organisations continue to increase their attending to domestic force. In the United Kindgom,The Domestic Violence, Crime and Victims Act 2004furnishes greater authorization to patrol and the tribunals in covering with instances of domestic force and in supplying protection to victims. Aditionally, the British government’s late issued national domestic force action program sets away ambitious ends ( CrimeReduction.gov.uk,Domestic Violence, 2005 ) quoted as follows: cut down the prevalence of domestic force ; increase the rate that domestic force is reported ; increase the rate of domestic force offenses that are brought to justness ; guarantee victims of domestic force are adequately protected and supported countrywide ; and cut down the figure of domestic force related homicides. Returning to the introductory citation, had Shakespeare’s Desdemona been alive today, possibly she would hold some hope that she would non everlastingly be in such great fright of Othello’s fury. Mentions Asiatic Pages( 1998 ) What is domestic force? November 14, 1998. Bandura, A. ( 1973 ) .Aggression: A societal acquisition analysis. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Cited in Danis, Fran S. ( 2003 ) The criminalisation of domestic force: What societal workers need to cognize.Social Work, April 1, 2003. Blau, P. M. ( 1964 ) .Exchange and power in societal life. New York: John Wiley A ; Sons. Danis, Fran S. ( 2003 ) The criminalisation of domestic force: What societal workers need to cognize.Social Work, April 1, 2003. Brown, Karen R. and Kenneym, Catherine T. ( 1996 ) Report from the front lines: The impact of force on hapless adult females [ Part 1 of 5 ] .Contemporary Women s Issues Database, January 1, 1996. Chalk, R. , A ; King, A. ( 1998 ) . ( Eds. ) .Violence in households: Assessing bar and intervention plans. Washington, DC: National Research Council/National Academy of Sciences. Cited in Danis, Fran S. ( 2003 ) The criminalisation of domestic force: What societal workers need to cognize.Social Work, April 1, 2003. Chez, N ( 1994 ) Helping the victim of domestic force.American Nursing1994 ; 94 ( 7 ) :32-37. Cited in Cited in Gibson-Howell, Joan C. ( 1996 ) Domestic force designation and referral.Journal of Dental Hygiene, March 1, 1996. Contemporary Women’s Issues Database( 1996 ) Domestic and sexual force informations aggregation [ Part 3 of 9 ] , July 1, 1996. Contemporary Women’s Issues Database( 1996 ) Measuring the costs of domestic force against adult females and the cost-effectiveness of intercessions [ Part 1 of 6 ] , May 1, 1996. Contemporary Women’s Issues Database( 1993 ) Men crushing adult females: Ending domestic violence—a qualitative and quantitative survey of public attitudes on force against adult females [ Part 3 of 7 ] , April 1, 1993. Contemporary Women s Issues Database( 1996 ) You or person you know may populate in a place where domestic force is a job, January 1, 1996. CrimeReduction.gov.uk ( 2005 ) ,Domestic forcehypertext transfer protocol: //www.crimereduction.gov.uk/domesticviolence51.htm, April 4, 2005 [ April 11, 2005 ] . CrimeReduction.gov.uk ( 2005 ) ,Domestic force mini-sitehypertext transfer protocol: //www.crimereduction.gov.uk/dv01.htm, April 4, 2005 [ April 9, 2005 ] . Crowell, N. A. , and Burgess, A. W. ( 1996 ) . ( Eds. ) .Understanding force against adult females.Washington, DC: National Academy Press. Cited in Danis, Fran S. ( 2003 ) The criminalisation of domestic force: What societal workers need to cognize.Social Work, April 1, 2003. Cruz, J. Michael ( 2003 ) Why does nt he merely go forth? Gay male domestic force and the grounds victims stay.The Journal of Men s Surveies, March 22, 2003. Danis, Fran S. ( 2003 ) The criminalisation of domestic force: What societal workers need to cognize.Social Work, April 1, 2003. Dobash, R. E. , and Dobash, R. ( 1979 ) .Violence against married womans: A instance against the patriarchate. New York: Free Press. Cited in Danis, Fran S. ( 2003 ) The criminalisation of domestic force: What societal workers need to cognize.Social Work, April 1, 2003. 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Hanna, Cheryl ( 1998 ) The paradox of hope: the offense and penalty of domestic force.William and Mary Law Review, May 1, 1998. Hewitt, Kim ( 2002 ) , Silent victims of force in place.The News Letter( Belfast, Northern Ireland ) , September 14, 2002. Isaac, Nancy E. ( 1997 ) Response to battered female parents in the paediatric exigency section: a call for an interdisciplinary attack to household force.Pediatricss, February 1, 1997. Josiah, Ivy ( 1998 ) Education through wireless.Contemporary Women s Issues Database, January 2, 1998. Kelly, Kristin A. ( 2004 ) Working together to halt domestic force: state-community partnerships and the altering significance of public and private.Journal of Sociology A ; Social Welfare, March 1, 2004. Laurence, Louise and Spalter-Roth, Roberta ( 1996 ) Research-in-brief: Measuring the costs of domestic force against adult females [ Part 1 of 2 ]Contemporary Women s Issues Database, January 1, 1996. Leo, John ( 1994 ) Is it a war against adult females?U.S. News A ; World Report, July 11, 1994. Loring, M. T. and Smith, R. W. ( 1994 ) Health attention barriers and intercessions for beat-up adult females.Public HealthReports1994 ; 109 ( 3 ) :322-329. Cited in Gibson-Howell, Joan C. ( 1996 ) Domestic force designation and referral.Journal of Dental Hygiene, March 1, 1996. M2 Presswire( 1998 ) Home Office: Prevention, protection and justness: A comprehensive attack to undertake domestic force, June 16, 1998. Manor, John H. ( 1996 ) Helping maltreaters out of the domestic force equation.Michigan Chronicle, January 30, 1996. Meyersfeld, Bonita C. ( 2003 ) Reconceptualizing domestic force in international jurisprudence.Albany Law Review, December 22, 2003. Neufield, Brenda ( 1996 ) Safe inquiries: get the better ofing barriers to the sensing of domestic force.American Family Physician, June 1, 1996. OLeary, K. D. ( 1987 ) . Physical aggression between partners: A societal acquisition theory position. In V. B. Van Hasselt, R. L. Morrison, A. S. Bellack, A ; M. Hersen ( Eds. ) ,Handbook of household force( pp. 31-55 ) . New York: Plenum Press. Cited in Danis, Fran S. ( 2003 ) The criminalisation of domestic force: What societal workers need to cognize.Social Work, April 1, 2003. Salisbury, Sarah and Wichmann, Lee Anne ( 2004 ) , Seen or unobserved, domestic force traumatizes kids.The Register-Guard, August 29, 2004. Schechter, S. ( 1982 )Womans and male force: The visions and battles of the beat-up adult females s motion. Boston: South End Press. Cited in Danis, Fran S. ( 2003 ) The criminalisation of domestic force: What societal workers need to cognize.Social Work, April 1, 2003. Seattle Post-Intelligencer( 1999 ) Domestic force: Give us statistics we can work with. July 16, 1999. Shakespeare, William ( 1604 ) ,Othelloact 5. Sc. 2. Edited by Sanders, Norman. Cambridge University Press, 1984. Cited in Meyersfeld, Bonita C. ( 2003 ) Reconceptualizing domestic force in international jurisprudence.Albany Law Review, December 22, 2003. Siegel, Reva B. ( 1996 ) , The regulation of love : Wife crushing as prerogative and privateness, 105 YALE L.J. 2117. Tuerkheimer, Deborah ( 2004 ) , Acknowledging and rectifying the injury of banging: A call to criminalize domestic force.Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology, June 22, 2004. Simerman, John ( 2002 ) Work force, excessively, fall victim to mistreat in large Numberss.Knight Ridder/Tribune News Service, November 25, 2002. Spath, Robin ( 2003 ) Child protection professionals placing domestic force indexs: deductions for societal work instruction.Journal of Social Work Education, September 22, 2003. Starr, Raymond H. , Jr. ( 2001 ) Type and timing of female parents victimization: effects on female parent and kids.Pediatricss, April 1, 2001. 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Evaluation of London 2012 Olympics Sustainability Plan The WritePass Journal

Evaluation of London 2012 Olympics Sustainability Plan Evaluation of London 2012 Olympics Sustainability Plan , the International Olympics Committee (IOC) published a sustainability plan that indicated ways in which sustainability issues like healthy living, climate change, waste management, biodiversity and inclusion could be dealt with. This paper provided an overview analysis of this plan, covering all these sustainability aspects. It later focuses on reviewing the aspect of climate change and efforts that were made to reduce the carbon footprint of the games. Findings from a small opinion survey that was carried out at GSM with ten students as respondents are also presented in this report. Introduction Sustainability is among the factors that are put into consideration when preparing for major sporting events (Kim, 2013). Within the past decade, there has been a growing increase in the level of attention by sports organizing committees on this issue. Before the Olympics and Paralympics Games that were hosted in London in 2012, the international Olympics Committee (IOC) prepared a plan that was to ensure sustainability during and after the games (LOCOG, 2009). With reference to these summer games, this paper intends to provide a brief analysis of the plan drafted by the event organizers, which will incorporate biodiversity, waste management, climate change, healthy living and inclusion. It also intends to provide a further detailed review of the inclusion aspect of sustainability, which shall be backed with evidence from news and academic perspectives. In establishing the effectiveness of sustainability efforts, an opinion survey was carried out with a section of students from GSM L ondon as respondents. Even though most of them were satisfied by the progress made so far, a small section of respondents opined that more needs to be done. Whereas this report highlights the progress that has been made by the IOC’s sustainability efforts, some of the drawbacks are also mentioned. Overview Analysis of the IOC Sustainability Plan Due of the fact that the Olympics attract millions of people, they can be detrimental to different aspects of sustainability if there is no detailed plan of their potential adverse impacts (Pedersen et al., 2011). In an effort to ensure this, the IOC focused on five aspects key aspects and prepared a sustainability plan to address the potential risks that could be posed to them. These are; biodiversity, inclusion, healthy living, waste management and climate change (LOCOG, 2009). This section provides a brief analytical overview of these aspects based on how attainable they are and their potential effectiveness. Waste Wastes during the Olympics and Paralympics are from a wide range of sources, which include construction, and other activities that relate to sporting (Douglas, 2012). In an effort to limit the impacts of wastes during and after the Olympic Games, the IOC had several strategies in plan. Its main objective was to attain zero waste during the games through utilization of exemplary management strategies. These included minimization of wastes at their sources, diversion of wastes from construction sites to other feasible locations, promotion of the reduce-reuse-recycle waste hierarchy and facilitation of individual behavioural changes (IOC, 2012). Another strategy was ensuring that all wastes resulting from the games were not directed to landfills. Whilst all these approaches were ideal, instilling a behavioural change in individuals to make them conscious about how they deal with their wastes can be considered as the most appropriate. This is because of the long-term impact it can have, not only on waste management but on the whole aspect of sustainability (Commission for a Sustainable London Olympics, 2007). On the other hand, the most challenging strategy to attain is the diversion of waste materials from construction sites. This is particularly challenging if the waste is bulky or the distance to where it is to be diverted is long. Climate Change Effects that Olympics and Paralympics could have on climate change were mainly as a result of carbon emissions. With the high numbers of people within and out of the UK and heavy energy consumption, the carbon footprint was bound to be enormous (Gold Gold, 2013). Therefore, the IOC was to establish and implement long term solutions to this issue. Some of the key areas that were to be addressed included the management of water and energy resources, infrastructural development, transportation and carbon offsetting strategies. To minimize the carbon footprint, the strategies that were used included optimization energy demand and efficiency and encouraging the use of renewable energy sources that had lower levels of carbon emission. With the increased global concerns of climate change that are caused by greenhouse emissions, these strategies received support from many stakeholders (Commission for a Sustainable London Olympics, 2007). Even with the optimism, reduction of the carbon footp rint during the games was affected by the high population of that attended the games and limited amount of available renewable energy. Biodiversity The existent biodiversity in London and other venues that hosted the 2012 Olympics had to be maintained and even further enhanced. For conservation of diversity, the IOC saw it necessary to use the Olympics as an avenue for increasing the public’s awareness about conservation and the role that natural environments play maintaining and promoting biodiversity (LOCOG, 2009). To attain this, the IOC pledged its commitment towards ensuring that natural resources in the Lower Lea Valley, London and across all other venues in the UK were effectively managed. The potential of success for this strategy is high. However, it was largely dependent on the availability of resources to facilitate management and promotion of public awareness (Commission for a Sustainable London Olympics, 2007). Inclusion The IOC’s objective was to make the London Olympics and Paralympics the most inclusive since the start of the Olympics (IOC, 2012). Therefore, the games were expected to bring together people from diverse social and cultural backgrounds. The games were also expected to facilitate regeneration on economic, physical and social aspects of the lower lea valley and its surroundings. By celebrating the diversity that exists in the UK and global population, the London Olympics and Paralympics encouraged participation from everyone with an aim of promoting social cohesion, fair play and respect (Karamichas, 2013). One of the strategies that were used to ensure inclusion was encouragement of communities across the UK to take advantage of opportunities that were presented by the games. These included trade, employment and new infrastructural facilities. Healthy Living Promotion of healthy lifestyles was also among the aspects that were addressed during the 2012 summer games (Wheeler, 2013). These games were to be used in inspiring people in London and across the United Kingdom to take up sporting activities to keep them active. Healthy and sustainable lifestyles should be attained by refraining from overexploiting natural resources. According to LOCOG (2009), there are many health benefits that can be attained through people’s own efforts. These include engagement in physical activities and maintaining a healthy living environment. This message was to benefit people from the UK as well as tourists who came as spectators. Review of the delivery of the Climate Change aspect of Sustainability There have been several mixed views about the success levels that were attained in the last Olympics to reduce the potential amount of carbon emission during the Olympics and Paralympics. As discussed earlier, a high percentage of greenhouse emissions originate from transportation and energy uses. Therefore, it is vital for the responsible bodies to consider addressing the aspects of energy and transport to realize a reasonable reduction of the overall emission (Siikamki et al., 2012). Chaabane et al. (2012) suggests that greenhouse gas emission can be managed by reducing motor transport. This can be achieved through avoiding unnecessary trips, using public transportation or alternative transportation methods that require less energy. There are direct and indirect consequences of this measure. The direct impact will be reduction of the total energy used in transportation, which directly reduces the volume of greenhouse gases emitted (Melanta et al., 2012). One of the indirect impacts is the reduction of congestion and traffic jams, which economizes the amount of fuel used by vehicles on the road and ultimately, the amount of carbon emissions (Droege, 2011). The use of sustainable energy sources is also suggested as an ideal approach towards reducing the carbon footprint (Droege, 2011). Some of the available sources of alternative sustainable energy include wind energy, solar power and geothermal power, among others. Given that the amount of energy produced from sustainable sources is limited, the public should be sensitized about the efficient use of energy in their workplaces and in their homes (Droege, 2011). One of the simple approaches that can be used is the purchase and use of energy efficient vehicles and electrical appliances. However, Saunders argues that a rebound can be experienced as an impact of attaining high energy efficiency levels. With reference to the neoclassical theory, Saunders argues that increased energy efficiency leads to a drop in its prices. As a result, it may be used to run machines as a substitute to human labour. This creates an increase in the greenhouse gas emission from fuel usage. He also argues that an increase in energy efficiency results in an increase in economic growth, which results into an increase in energy use (Saunders, 2013). Regardless of the neoclassical theory presented by Saunders, the current climatic situations present the need for increasing energy efficiencies (Droege, 2011). With reference to the 2012 Olympics and Paralympics, it was established that the carbon dioxide released in the course of the games was 28% less than the projected amount. According to the London Organizing Committee of the Olympic and Paralympic Games (LOCOG), the initial projection of carbon dioxide emission reductions was at 6,000 Mt but the attained reductions were at 31,000 Mt (Environmental Leader, 2012). The success in this reduction was attributed to a concept referred to as â€Å"the four R’s (reduce, re-route, re-time and re-mode)† by Transport for London (TfL). This approach is similar as to those suggested in literature. It involved reducing the need to travel by taking leaves working at home, planning to travel before or after peak times, taking an alternative route and using different transportatio n means (LOCOG, 2009). The alternative transport modes that were used on the widest scale included walking and cycling. Even though LOCOG (2009) is credited for provision of this information, it is worthy pointing out that most of the reports about sustainability during the Olympics were positive, even though several observers identified shortcomings in these efforts. Even though the carbon footprint from transport was less than the projected levels, the carbon emission from spectators was estimated to be 913,000 Mt, which exceeded the expected emissions by approximately 36% (Environmental Leader, 2012). This difference between the estimates and the actual emissions was argued to have been caused by the high number of spectators, athletes and the Olympics and Paralympics workforces. There were a total of 11 million spectators, thousands of athletes and more than 200,000 people in the workforce. Even with the higher amount of emission from spectators, the overall amount of emissions was at 3.3 million Mt, which was much lower that the estimate of 3.4 million Mt that was made in 2009 (LOCOG, 2009). Even after the Olympics and Paralympics, these strategies for reducing the CO2 are still being used in the UK. In addition to the climate change aspect of other aspects like waste management, biodiversity and inclusion also attained reasonable levels of s uccess. Opinion Survey Methodology used To get a further understanding of the effectiveness of strategies that were formulated in the IOC sustainability plan, a small opinion survey was carried out. The main objective was to obtain their views on how effectively the emission of greenhouse gases was managed. A semi-structured interview approach was utilized to allow the respondents to freely give their opinions about the subject of the opinion survey (Yin, 2010). Ten students from the Greenwich School of Management were selected as respondents the selection was random and was based on their willingness to participate in the opinion survey. During the survey, two main questions were asked to the respondents. The first was their opinions on the achievements made in efforts to reduce carbon emissions. The seconds was their opinions on what could be done to attain better results. The answers that were given by respondents were recorded on paper and stored for analysis. One major limitation that was experienced was the lack of i nterest by some of the students who were approached to participate in the survey. There were also cases where students were willing to participate, but lacked the background information about the subject of the survey. Findings Out of the ten the students who were interviewed during the survey, six were satisfied with the carbon management efforts while three were unsure about whether the strategies were effective. However, one was sceptical about the management of carbon emissions. For instance, one of the respondents argued â€Å"During the games, I was impressed by how transport was managed. Though I expected many challenges because of the millions of people who attended, I can’t remember seeing any big traffic jam or related issues.† This signifies how effective the transportation plans were during the games. As aforementioned, reduction of traffic jams and congestion contributes towards energy efficiency. Another respondent based his argument on the reviews he had read on different news periodicals he argued â€Å"after the Olympics, many news outlets have indicated their satisfaction about the reduction of carbon emission by the efficient use of energy. Infact, there was an article that indicated that the footprint was much less than what was anticipated.† The scepticism of one of the respondents was based on his opinion that there was no appropriate way of accurately estimating the volume or weight of carbon emissions from the Olympics (Droege, 2011). He said â€Å"I don’t believe there’s an appropriate method to measure the exact amount of carbon emissions. The stuff we hear in the news is based on estimates. They might have reported a smaller value of emissions just to portray a good image of the UK or the IOC to the world.† Even Though one respondent was sceptic about the achievements of the IOC, TfL and LOCOG, the fact that most of the respondents were positive about the efforts made to achieve a low carbon footprint during the Summer Olympics indicates the strategies in the sustainability plan published by the IOC were ideal (Environmental Leader, 2012). Some of the recommendations that were made by the respondents to further reduc e the carbon footprint in future games included increment of fuel prices to discourage travel by personal cars and increasing the energy production from sustainable energy sources. Conclusion As presented in this paper, sustainability has been among the key aspects for consideration in major sporting events within the last decade. In this regard, the organizers of the 2012 summer Olympics and Paralympics prepared a detailed plan on how to address several suitability issues that could have arisen in the games. These include healthy living, waste management, inclusion, biodiversity and climate change. This paper focused more on the how effectively the aspect of climate changes was managed. The main area of focus was the approaches that were uses to ensure energy efficiency and reduce the carbon overall carbon footprint of the games. The effectiveness of these measures were reflected in the fact that there CO2 greenhouse gas emissions caused by energy use was less than the projected amount by 28%. A small opinion survey also was carried out with help of students from the Greenwich School of Management. From its findings, there was a further indication that the sustainability plan or ensuring a smaller amount of carbon gas emissions was ideal. One major drawback was that there was a higher amount of carbon dioxide emission from spectators that was anticipated. However, this was attributed to the high population of spectators, officials and sportsmen who were approximately 11 million in total. In order to further reduce the carbon footprint during major games in future, organizing committees have to carry out an extensive review of the strengths and drawbacks of the strategies applied in London in 2012. This will help them modify the sustainability model and make it better. In future research, a more in-depth survey that involves more respondents drawn from across the UK should be carried out. All the other elements of sustainability should also be addressed. References Chaabane, A., Ramudhin, A. Paquet, M., 2012. Design of sustainable supply chains under the emission trading scheme. International Journal of Production Economics, 135(1), pp.37-49. Commission for a Sustainable London Olympics, 2007. On Track for a Sustainable Legacy: Review of Governance Arrangements for the London 2012 Olympic Games and Paralympic Games Programme. London: Governance Review Commission for a Sustainable London. Douglas, L., 2012. Zero-waste olympic games. Engineering Technology, 6(12), pp.46-47. Droege, P., 2011. Urban Energy Transition: From Fossil Fuels to Renewable Power. Oxford: Elsevier. Environmental Leader, 2012. London Olympics Generated 28% Less CO2e Than Forecast. [Online] Available at: environmentalleader.com/2012/12/12/london-olympics-generated-28-less-co2e-than-forecast/   [Accessed 5 December 2013]. Gold, J.R. Gold, M.M., 2013. Bring It under the Legacy Umbrella†: Olympic Host Cities and the Changing Fortunes of the Sustainability Agenda. Sustainability, 5(8), pp.3526-42. IOC, 2012. Sustainability through Sport. London: IOC. Karamichas, J., 2013. London 2012 and Environmental Sustainability: A Study Through the Lens of Environmental Sociology. Sociological Research Online, 18(3), p.17. Kim, H.D., 2013. The 2012 London Olympics: Commercial Partners, Environmental Sustainability, Corporate Social Responsibility and Outlining the Implications. The International Journal of the History of Sport, pp.1-12. LOCOG, 2009. London 2012 Sustainability Plan. London: LOCOG. Melanta, S., Miller-Hooks, E. Avetisyan, H.G., 2012. Carbon Footprint Estimation Tool for Transportation Construction Projects. Journal of Construction Engineering and Management, 139(5), pp.547-55. Pedersen, P.M., Parks, ‎J. Quarterman, J‎., 2011. Contemporary Sport Management. Illinois: Human Kinetics. Saunders, H.D., 2013. Historical evidence for energy efficiency rebound in 30 US sectors and a toolkit for rebound analysts. Technological Forecasting and Social Change, 3(24), pp.34-58. Siikamki, J., Sanchirico, J.N. Jardine, S.L., 2012. Global economic potential for reducing carbon dioxide emissions from mangrove loss. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 109(36), pp.14369-74. Wheeler, S.M., 2013. Planning for Sustainability: Creating Livable, Equitable and Ecological Communities. New York: Routledge. Yin, R.K., 2010. Qualitative Research from Start to Finish. New York: Guilford Press. //

Analysis of film Clear and Present Danger in relation to the 1980-90's Essay

Analysis of film Clear and Present Danger in relation to the 1980-90's War on Drugs era and Colombian instability - Essay Example The film starred Harrison Ford, Willem Defoe, Anne Archer, Joachim de Almeida, and Henry Czerny, with important appearances by James Earl Jones and Donald Moffat. Hope Lange and Dean Jones, stars from another era, both made appearances as officials in the government. The film was directed by Philip Noyce with the adaptation written by Donald Stewart .1 The film revolves around the temporary appointment of Ryan as Deputy Director of Intelligence for the CIA when Admiral James Greer becomes ill with cancer. Quickly the action ratchets up as one of the President’s friends is murdered along with the friend’s family. As Ryan is called in to investigate he is embroiled in an intrigue of subterfuge and secrecy. He is used to present false facts to Congress in order to cover up an operation that is considered unethical. An action against the men who were involved in the murder ends badly, leaving the covert troups hanging in the wind and Ryan furious for the inappropriate and i llegal action for which he has now been set up to take responsibility. In the end, Jack Ryan steps up and goes in after the troops with the agent who believed that Ryan was responsible for the cut-off in communications, rescuing the troops and making a political statement about the nature of right and wrong. The film is reflective of many of the unclear and shadowed legacies of the events of President Ronald Reagan’s term in office. In one scene, Robert Ritter and Jack Ryan have a showdown about the events that Ritter approved but burdened Ryan with the responsibility. Ritter repeats twice that Ryan will have to say â€Å"I have no recollection† when he will supposedly have to face congress about the illegal events.2 At the end of the scene, Ritter shouts after Jack â€Å"The world is grey, Jack†, a theme of the time period when drugs were part of the foreign relations events.3 During the administration of President Ronald Reagan, the Iran-Contra affair was rife with declarations of a lack of memory or knowledge of the events by the President and others presumed involved. Former Lieutenant Colonel Oliver North might be a real life figure who is represented by Jack Ryan. Regardless of knowledge of the events, he was the central figure indicted on charges from the fall-out of the exposure of the Iran-Contra deal, but was able to portray for the cameras a patriot with a wholesome appearance.4 While this comparison to North is not strictly representative of the truth of North’s involvement (a truth that may never be fully revealed to history), the potential threat against Ryan through Ritter parallels the feeling of the event. The period of President Reagan’s term and the events of covert and illegal deals is the universe and period of time in which the film takes place. The events of the film are a parallel to the concept of backroom deals and covert operations of a nefarious and illegal nature that were the topic of literary an d film plots of the 1980s and 1990s. The legacy of the Vietnam War, as President Nixon’s administration covertly moved troops into Cambodia is reflected through the illegal movement of troops within the film.5 The intrigue and conspirator themes about a government that cannot be trusted is the underlying context on which the story of the film is constructed. The specific theme of the film is built upon the relationship that the United States had with Columbia and the Columbia drug cartels. The unfortunate state of affairs in Columbia was based upon a system that supported the sale of drugs into the United States. Columbia had shifted its economy from one based on tobacco and coffee to

Music Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 7

Music - Essay Example Moreover, it should be of very high popularity among listeners and performed by various artists over the years. Race music refers to all recordings produced and performed by African American musicians for African American spectators while hillbilly is an old-time music presented by and for southern whites (Starr and Waterman 109). According to them, both terms are used to distinguish and promote music of the south. These are used by the music industry to provide â€Å"racially segregated markets† because racial isolation was still not considered to be illegal during 1954 in United States (Frith, Straw and Street 259). Race records and hillbilly both incorporated popular music in their respective genre. Music was even used to separate the whites from the black. Although some would take it negatively, the blacks used the term race to refer to the African-American people. Twelve-bar blues progression is a very common form of blues. It is a twelve-measure long. It is a standard rhythm with three four-measure segments (Vincent). This progression uses three cords: â€Å"the Tonic (I), Dominant (V) and Subdominant (IV)† (Bennett-Lovsey n. pag.). It commonly has a three-line pattern of lyrics, the AAB pattern, with first two lines repeated or almost the same, and the other one is a response to the previous lines. Austin defined big band as a musical group presenting and performing jazz, which came out to be famous from 1930s to 1940s. It normally has brass, woodwind, and rhythm instruments with almost twenty-five musicians. The rhythm section of the big band is composed of keyboards or piano, synth, guitar, bass, and drums. Often times, percussion instruments are also added such as tumbadora or congas and bongo drum or a pair of smaller and larger Afro-Cuban drums, guiros, and vibraphone (Austin). Austin further added that rhythm section serves as the band’s stimulus and is very important to the band and to

Assignment 1 Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 4

1 - Assignment Example The company has been in existence since 1980. The company is well set up and its employees have an average of 8 years work experience. All of their 30 personnel have at least a college qualification. This company has their own equipments which are maintained in their site. This vendor does not respond with haste to projects but offer quality service and is averagely flexible. Upon contract agreement, they start work after 6 to 8 weeks. It employs its own equipment and can work into the night to complete the project but charge for every extra hour. In case an extra item arises a charge of 200 dollars per hour is levied with equipment if required. The company has operated from 1995. The personnel of this vendor on average have a working experience of 10 years. They have fewer employees than vendor 1, as they have 18 full time employees. All the 18 employees are as qualified as the ones for vendor 1. Just like vendor 1 they are not very quick in responding to projects. Unlike vendor 1, it is highly flexible but offer moderate quality service. It also has some of its equipment maintained in site. Upon contract agreement, they start work after 4 weeks which quicker compared to vendor 1. Vendor 2 offers a break down in its pricing and identifies what can be done in house. It can also customize and write training programs using the company’ material. In case an extra item arises a charge of 180 dollars per hour is levied with equipment if required which is less than vendor 1’s offer. The company has existed since 2000. It’s a new firm but their personnel have an average of 5 years experience. It has 10 employees who are highly qualified compared to vendor 1 and vendor 2. They respond very fast to project and are moderately flexible. The company offers acceptable quality but not outstanding. They respond a week after an agreement is reached. They can work into the night to complete the project. In case an

Reasoned Action and Planned Behavior Theory

Reasoned Action and Planned Behavior Theory Buyer Behavior and Marketing Strategy The theory of reasoned action assumes that consumers consciously consider the consequences of the alternative behaviours under consideration and choose the one that leads to the most desirable consequences (PO: 8th edition: 2008) where intention is the key cognitive demonstration of a persons willingness to carry out the specific behavior and is the single best predictor of actual behaviour (PO: 8th edition: 2008) this means that any action that requires a certain amount of cognitive thinking and decision process requires a behavioral intention in order to complete the behavior. The Theory of reasoned action is not relevant for extremely simple or involuntary behaviours such as automatic eye blinking. Turning your head at the sound of the telephone, or sneezing (PO: 8th edition: 2008) The Theory of reasoned action is an adapted and broadened development of the multiattribute model by Fishbein. This is a useful guide for devising strategies to change consumers attitudes (PO: 8th edition: 2008) The theory also assumes that people tend to perform behaviors that are evaluated favourably and are popular with other people (PO: 8th edition: 2008) therefore external and environmental factors influences such as the social environment and personal variables such as values, goals, lifestyle patterns and psychological characteristics manipulate the consumers intention to engage in the behavior. If the behavior is seen or regarded unpopular among people in close proximity of that person then it is highly likely that the intention to perform the behavior will not occur. Behavioral intention (BI) is a proposition connecting self and future action (PO: 8th edition: 2008) and these are created through Choice and Decision process (PO: 8th edition: 2008) depending on consumers intention to engage in that behavior and the subjective norm regarding whether other people want the consumer to engage in that behavior. The strength of intentions of the consumer is very important aspect as this is combined with evaluations that highlight the consumers salient beliefs about the function consequences (PO: 8th edition: 2008). This combination creates the attitude towards the behavior or action where we can see the overall manifestation of evaluation of performing the behavior. For marketers the measurements of these beliefs are important and the same method is used to measure beliefs about product attributes. attitudes towards behaviors are likely to be strongly related to specific behavioral intentions (PO: 8th edition: 2008) Thus in continuation if behavioral intentions and actions become more specific towards an object then this strongly changes attitudes toward the salient beliefs and consequences of the behavior moreover forming different evaluations. This is important as marketers must be careful to determine whether they are concerned with consumers attitudes toward the object in general or some action regarding the object (PO: 8th edition: 2008) for the measurement of strengths and evaluations of salient beliefs about the consequences. For example it would not be odd to find that a consumer enjoys eating take away fish and chips occasionally, but they would have negative attitudes toward eating takeaway fish and chips everyday as this behavior would have negative consequences and would not be perceived as a favourable or popular among other people. The levels of specificity should be appropriate in relation to attitudes as more specific actions will see the need for different behaviours the measured intention should be specified at the same level as the observer (PO: 8th edition: 2008) other wise the relationship between measured behavioural intentions and observed behaviour will be weakened. This relates to appropriateness of specific behavior in specific situations, for example if a person wore jeans to the gymnasium for a work out, the observed behaviour by the social norm would think it is inappropriate.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Social Norm is another key element in the theory of reasoned action as this reflects consumers perceptions of what other people want them to do (PO: 8th edition: 2008). This of course is directly linked with behavioral intention and the individuals compliance to the expected social normative beliefs. Measured in probability of individuals motivation to conform to the subjective social norm, similar technique to how behavioral intention and belief strength is measured. If the subjective norm is higher then than intentional strength, then the behavior is evaluated under normative control rather than attitude linked control. In addition another hugely important factor is time, time is the major predictive accuracy of measured intentions, the longer the intervening time period, the more unanticipated circumstances (PO: 8th edition: 2008) consumer intentions and attitudes change over time and the longer it takes between measurement of intentions and observation of behavior the more likely other factors adjust the original intention so that it no longer corresponds to the observed behavior. Thus marketers must expect lower levels of predictive accuracy when intentions are measured long before the behavior occurs (PO: 8th edition: 2008) In 1985 the Fishbein model was modified once again with an additional variable of perceived control in the Theory of Planned Behaviour, this variable assumes that the consumer does not have complete voluntary control over some behaviors, if this is the case then we assume that the intentions are misleading which would create inaccuracies observed behavior. Addictions to smoking and alcohol would deter perceived control where he or she has little or not control, in comparison to someone walking into a supermarket and with out going through any cognitive or decision making processes picks up a Cadbury bar instead of a Mars bar. But do consumers really approach and purchase products in the same fashioned way by the theory outlined? The theory is required to be falsifiable, and looking at different perspectives of authors, critiques and methods of application in real time environments we can come to a better understanding of whether this theory is accurate or not Like any other theory posed in the past, the theory of reasoned action has been under criticism for the past 30 years, The theory of reasoned action identifies the types of cognitive and affective factors that underlie a consumers intention to perform a specific behavior, although intentions determine most voluntary behaviors, measures of consumers intentions may not be perfect indicators of the actual intentions that determine the behavior (PO: 8th edition: 2008) According to PO, the theory of reasoned action gives possible motives, triggers and possible cognitive and decision making processes that determines peoples behaviors through behavioural intentions, The intentions themselves are not solid indicators that people will actually perform those behaviors. According to David Trafimow in his Journal Theory of Reasoned Action: A case Study of Falsification in Psychology (2009; 19; 501) David Trafimow poses a question which is also posed by Miniard and Cohen (1981) that criticises two key components, what if behavioural beliefs normative beliefs are really different names for each other? and as a consequence Trafimow underlines that there is a conceptual problem with the theory of reasoned action. The suggested illustration of a behavior is eating a chocolate bar; the behavioral belief is my father will disagree with me if I eat a chocolate bar and the normative belief is my father thinks I should not eat a chocolate bar. This clearly suggests that there is a contradiction in the theory where it states that behavioral beliefs and normative beliefs have a clear distinction. As a result of this contradiction the theory is left rendered unfalsifiable (Trafimow: 2009; 19; 501) so if this distinction is considered incorrect then surely attitud e and subjective norms subject for question? In contrast to the theory of reasoned action researchers believe that attitude contains both affective and cognitive variables (Trafimow 2009; 19; 501), (Triandis 1980). Factor analysis is used on this assumption to test and determine the conception of attitude by many researchers; however Trafimow indicates that researchers limiting themselves to factor analysis paradigms would in no way seem to falsify the theory. Instead, Trafimow Sheeran (1998) include auxiliary assumptions to assume an associative hypothesis to test on participants associative pathways if beliefs that are more cognitive are likely to become associated with each other compared to beliefs that are more affective. The results substantiates the hypothesis, The participants in the study contiguously retrieved cognitive beliefs to each other and affective beliefs to each other; therefore it brings us to an essential assumption about the theory of reasoned action attitudes do not contain distinctive and affective comp onents (Trafimow Sheeran, 1998) As a result of this falsification it is this reason that the theory has directed the modification to apply distinction in the Ajzen and Fishbein model (2005). The application of theory of reasoned action in marketing environment research methods   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Trafimows method of auxiliary assumptions to falsify theories has shown us that the theory of reasoned action is used widely by many researchers and marketers nevertheless it is still not an unconditional technique. Personally, the theory is still an assumption and it does not accurately illustrate consumers approach to the purchase of products, as shown by Trafimows case study the theory is proving unfalsifiable and has critical conceptual problems that would need to be addressed before this theory could be used to show accurate results, but even then human psychology and behavior studies are still in the dark ages and achieving that is a accomplishment for the future generations.

Testing the Theory of Multitasking Essay -- Stroop Effect, Experimenta

This experimental investigation has to do with how human’s attention work. It is based on a replication of the well-known â€Å"Stroop Effect† carried out on 1935 by John Ridley Stroop. The aim of this experiment was to demonstrate how hard it is for a person’s attention to be divided in different tasks, by making the participants read a series of three stimuli which consisted of: 1) words of colors in black ink, 2) words of colors in their actual font color, and 3) color words with different ink, where the participant read the font instead of the word present. The research hypothesis supposed that selective attention is as easy to be performed visually as well as audibly. The controlled variable of the experiment were the black ink color words, while the second stimuli was considered to be experimental variable. There were two independent variables that were the color words corresponding to their color and the number of mistakes each participant made in each ca tegory. The dependent variable was the third stimuli, where the participant read its font rather than the word presented. The experiment was completed within a group of sixteen participants from an age range of 13-16 (eight girls and eight boys in total). The average time and mistakes in each variable was the following: 9.28 seconds with no mistakes, 9.53 seconds with one mistake, and 25.53 seconds and an average of two mistakes. In conclusion, the observations were that it took much more time in the last stimuli, which was the one that divided attention into two tasks. Implication findings would be the modicum amount of participants in the experiment. The aim of the experiment was to discover the implications attention has when it is used in two different tasks. This inve... ...me day at almost the same time. They were also tested one at a time, while the others stayed in a classroom being unexposed to what they would do when it was their turn. If the words are given in the participant’s natal language, there would be a greater reliability of results since it was their most proficient language. Two of the participants had the experiment conducted at a later hour on another environment. Works Cited "BACKGROUND ON THE STROOP EFFECT." Rochester Institute of Technology. Web. 16 Feb. 2010. . "BDoughertyAmSchool - IB information - grade 11." BDoughertyAmSchool - home. Web. 16 Feb. 2010. . "Participant Selection -." Participedia. Web. 16 Feb. 2010. .